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Understanding Territorial Dogs

By
Dr. Kate Mornement Phd, CAAB
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0
Territorial dogs are practicing a natural behavior. Intensely territorial dogs can be managed with stress and anxiety reduction, or other techniques.
As is the case with a dog who barks at a fence line and experiences passersby usually not coming into ‘his’ yard, it is easy to accidentally create situations where a dog is rewarded for territorial behavior. Credit: Timbicus | Getty Images

Your dog sees someone walking their dog past your property through the front window. He immediately launches off the couch towards the window, barking intensely and ignoring your pleas for him to come back to you. By the time you reach him he’s fixated on the passers-by, hackles raised, pupils dilated, over threshold.

Sound familiar? For many dog owners, territorial behavior is one of the most frustrating and misunderstood parts of living with a dog. Is my dog being protective? Is it a problem? Can the behavior be changed?

What Is Territorial Behavior in Dogs?

Territorial behavior in dogs is the instinct to patrol and protect a defined space against perceived intruders or warn others of their presence. It’s a very normal behavior for many animals living in the wild who rely on their home territory for their very survival. Wild-living animals must protect their shelter, hunting or foraging grounds, mates, and social group as losing them could put them at grave risk.

Why Do Dogs Become Territorial?

Even though dogs are domesticated and don’t need to reply on their territory for their survival, they still retain the instinct to perform territorial behavior. While some alert barking is normal and often appreciated by the owner, when the dog’s response becomes disproportionate to the actual threat, then the issue should be addressed.

It’s also worth noting that a dog’s territory often isn’t limited to the home or yard. Some dogs may extend their territory out to the car, their favorite park, or even a regular route you walk them.

Signs of a Territorial Dog

Territorial behavior in dogs occurs on a spectrum, ranging from non-existent or quite mild through to extremely intense and potentially dangerous. Recognizing where your dog sits on that spectrum is the first step toward managing the behavior effectively.

At the more mild end, you might see alert barking, the body stiffening, and movement towards the perceived threat. However, the dog will typically remain responsive to their owner. In the middle of the spectrum, the behavior escalates to sustained barking, fence running, and lunging. It’s usually more difficult to get your dog’s attention at this point. At the severe end, the dog becomes fixated on the target. The barking and lunging intensify to include growling, snapping, and biting. The dog may attempt to jump the fence to get to the trigger and the risk of a bite injury significantly increases.

Common body language signs in territorial dogs include:

  • Carrying weight forward
  • Holding the tail high and ridged
  • A hard and direct stare
  • Raised hackles along the back

Trigger stacking is another useful concept to understand here. A trigger threshold is the point at which a dog tips from noticing a stimulus into a full reactive response. Often, territorial dogs will remain calm and tolerant to the presence of a trigger a certain distance away, but escalate suddenly once the trigger is close enough to cross that threshold boundary. This distance differs for every dog and knowing your own dog’s threshold allows you to work around it.

What Causes Territorial Aggression in Dogs?

Territorial aggression can be influenced by several contributing factors. These include genetics, early socialization, prior learning history, and the environment.

Breed Predisposition

Breeds that were developed for certain roles such as guarding, herding, or protection have been selectively bred to be wary of, and to alert to, the presence of unfamiliar people or dogs near their territory. These breeds include German Shepherds, Rottweilers, and Dobermans. This doesn’t mean that all dogs from these breeds will have issues with territorial aggression, just that some individuals may have a stronger drive to engage in the behavior.

Socialization History

The critical period for socialization for dog occurs between three and 12 weeks of age. It is vital that puppies are exposed to a wide variety of people, environments, and other dogs in a neutral or positive way for their behavioral well-being. Dogs who miss out on such positive exposure to the world around them during this time are more likely to perceive unfamiliar people or dogs as threats.

Reinforcement History

Whenever a territorial dog barks at a passerby and the passerby walks away, the dog has just learned that barking works. The behavior was reinforced—albeit unintentionally. When we consider this scenario may have been repeated dozens, if not hundreds, of times it can produce a dog who is convinced this is the correct response given the circumstances.

Hormonal Influences

Intact males are more likely than neutered males to exhibit territorial aggression and research supports desexing as a way to reduce hormonally-driven territorial behavior, although it rarely addresses the issue on its own.

The Role of Fear and Anxiety

Anxiety and chronic stress can also contribute to territorial behavior. An anxious dog may guard their safe space more intensely as a way of managing their insecurity. In these cases, it’s important to address the underlying stress/anxiety to effectively work to reduce the problem behavior.

Which Dogs are Most at Risk of Becoming Territorial?

Territorial behavior can emerge or even intensify when dogs reach social maturity at around 18 months to three years of age. A puppy or adolescent who seemed quite manageable often surprises their owners when that switch flips.

In addition to the risk factors discussed above, spending a significant amount of time at the front door or window, especially when people frequently approach or walk past, can also play a role in the development of territorial behavior in dogs. Research suggests that dogs with repeated, uninterrupted exposure to passing people, dogs, or vehicles often develop stronger territorial responses over time, reinforced through repetition (Beaver, 2009).

A lack of adequate physical exercise and mental stimulation can also contribute to the problem. When barking at people passing by is the most interesting, reinforcing behavior in their day, most dogs will choose it. Try to ensure you’re meeting your dog’s needs for physical activity and mental engagement.

Preventing Territorial Behavior in Dogs

Prevention, as they say, is easier than cure and most of it comes down to early socialization with passers-by and good management practices:

  • Prioritize optimal socialization early—Puppies who have regular positive experiences with a variety of different visitors (delivery drivers, tradespeople, people in hats and uniforms, etc.) are less likely to perceive them as a threat later on.
  • Teach a default behavior when visitors arrive—Teaching an “on your bed/mat” cue is a highly effective way to teach your dog calm and relaxed behavior when people approach or visit the home.
  • Manage rehearsal—Avoid allowing your dog to practice the unwanted territorial behavior. Instead, interrupt and redirect the behavior. Use baby gates or close doors to prevent access to the trigger and use positive reinforcement to reward incompatible behaviors.

Managing Territorial Behavior and When to Seek Professional Help

If you’re working with a dog who already has established territorial behavior, you need to implement good management and behavior modification practices. These should include desensitization and counter-conditioning to the triggers, environmental management to prevent access to triggers outside of training sessions, structured greeting protocols, and provision of adequate exercise and enrichment. This should all be done in consultation with a trained professional to ensure effectiveness and safety for all.

Territorial behavior is very common and normal canine behavior. However, when it poses a risk to people or other animals, it must be addressed. With the right support most dogs will improve considerably.

References

Duffy, D. L., Hsu, Y., & Serpell, J. A. (2008). Breed differences in canine aggression. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 114(3-4), 441-460.

Howell, T. J., King, T., & Bennett, P. C. (2015). Puppy parties and beyond: the role of early age socialization practices on adult dog behavior. Veterinary Medicine: Research and Reports, 143-153.

Péter, P., Éva, S., Anna, K., András, P., & Ádám, M. (2014). More than noise?—Field investigations of intraspecific acoustic communication in dogs (Canis familiaris). Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 159, 62-68.

Are You Looking for a Homemade Dog Biscuits Recipe?

By
Dr. Mary Cope, PhD
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0
Natural homemade dog biscuits offer a better option than processed bagged treats.
Making your own dog treats brings many advantages, not to mention your sense of pride when your dog devours your healthy creation. Credit: Courtesy of Dr. Mary Cope

As pet owners become increasingly focused on the quality of the foods they give to their dogs, homemade dog treats have experienced a surge in popularity. While commercial treats offer convenience, many owners are seeking greater control over the ingredients used and like the opportunity to customize trats to meet their dog’s unique needs.

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Diabetes Insipidus in Dogs

By
Dr. Jennifer Bailey, DVM
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0
Excessive thirst is one of the signs of diabetes insipidus in dogs.
Diabetes insipidus in dogs is characterized by excess thirst and urination. However, it’s not very common and not the only possible reason your dog is drinking too much water. Credit: igoriss | Getty Images

Your dog’s water bowl is empty—again. As you refill the bowl with water, your thoughts drift to how many times a day you have been finding his water bowl empty. He also seems to be urinating more.

It is normal for dogs to vary how much they drink according to their activity level, diet, and environmental temperature and humidity. But a dramatic increase in water consumption and urine volume that worsens or does not resolve on its own may indicate a serious medical problem.

There are many conditions that cause increased water consumption and urination. The most common of these conditions are diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, and hyperadrenocorticism (Cushing’s disease). A rare condition that causes these symptoms is diabetes insipidus.

Diabetes insipidus is different from diabetes mellitus. The term diabetes is from the Greek language and means “to pass through”. In this context, diabetes refers to passing large volumes of urine. The term mellitus is from the Latin for “sweet” while insipidus is from the Latin for “tasteless”. Diabetes mellitus (also known as sugar diabetes) is the passing of large volumes of sweet-tasting urine. Diabetes insipidus is the voiding of very dilute, tasteless urine in large volumes.

Normal Water Consumption Dogs

What is considered normal water consumption for a dog? The answer is that it varies between individuals. The normal range is three to eleven ounces of water per 10 pounds of body weight per day. For example, a 50-pound dog may consume anywhere from 15 to 55 ounces (about 2 to 7 cups) of water per day.

An increase in ambient temperature or change in humidity, increased activity level, or consuming a salty snack will (and should!) increase the amount of water your dog consumes. But consuming more than fifteen ounces (about two cups) of water per 10 pounds of body weight per day for three or more consecutive days warrants a visit to your veterinarian. For example, this would be more than 9 ½ cups of water per day for a 50-pound dog.

Thirst is what drives dogs (and us!) to consume water. Excess thirst is known medically as “polydipsia”. Consuming large volumes of water often leads to producing large volumes of urine. This is known medically as “polyuria”. Your veterinarian may refer to your dog as having polyuria/polydipsia, or PU/PD for short.

How To Measure Your Dog’s Daily Water Intakes

Follow these steps to accurately measure how much water your dog is drinking per day:

  1. Start with an empty water bowl.
  2. Measure the amount of water you put in your dog’s water bowl using a liquid measuring cup.
  3. Write down the amount you put in the bowl and label it “starting amount”.
  4. When it is time to refill your dog’s water bowl, empty the remaining water in the bowl into a liquid measuring cup.
  5. Subtract the amount of water you just removed from the bowl from the starting amount. This is how much water your dog drank from his bowl.
  6. Write down the amount of water your dog drank and label it “amount consumed”.
  7. Repeat steps 1 – 6 as necessary throughout the course of the day.
  8. At the end of the day, add up all of the “amount consumed” measurements. This is the total amount of water your dog drank over the course of the day.

Causes of Diabetes Insipidus in Dogs

There are two forms of diabetes insipidus. The first is called central diabetes insipidus (CDI). The other form is known as nephrogenic diabetes insipidus (NDI). There is a third condition that is often lumped in with diabetes insipidus but is its own separate disease. This condition is called psychogenic polydipsia.

There are several hormones in the body that control thirst and the volume of urine produced by the kidneys. One of these hormones is arginine vasopressin, also known as anti-diuretic hormone (ADH).

ADH is produced by the hypothalamus in the brain. Think of the hypothalamus as the control center of the body. It manages body temperature, blood pressure, sleep cycles, and sensations of thirst and hunger. Once produced, ADH is stored next door to the hypothalamus in the posterior pituitary gland.

When the hypothalamus senses that the body is running low on water, it sends a signal to the pituitary gland to release ADH. ADH travels through the bloodstream and binds to receptors in the kidneys. This triggers the kidneys to conserve water as they make urine. Urine becomes more concentrated (color turns dark yellow) and urine volume decreases.

Central Diabetes Insipidus

CDI is when there is a deficiency of ADH. Since there is little to no ADH released by the pituitary gland, the kidneys never receive the signal to conserve water. Urine becomes dilute with very little color or odor. Water is being continually lost through the kidneys, so the hypothalamus turns on the thirst switch. Dogs with CDI will drink excessive amounts of water only to lose it through their kidneys.

There are several causes of CDI in dogs. These include head trauma, brain tumor, inflammatory conditions of the brain, and congenital malformation of the hypothalamus or pituitary gland. But the majority of dogs with CDI are found to have no identifiable cause. This is referred to as idiopathic CDI.

Nephrogenic Diabetes Insipidus

NDI is when there is plenty of circulating ADH but the kidneys are unable to respond to it. There are two forms of NDI—primary and secondary.

Primary NDI is extremely rare. It is caused by a congenital defect in the kidneys. There is plenty of ADH available in dogs that have NDI.  But their kidneys lack the receptors for ADH. Dogs with primary NDI start exhibiting excess thirst and urination when they are puppies.

Secondary NDI is more common than CDI and primary NDI. It is caused by a condition that interferes with the kidney’s ability to respond to ADH. These conditions include certain types of infections, Cushing’s disease, electrolyte disturbances, and particular forms of cancer.

Psychogenic Polydipsia

Psychogenic polydipsia is a behavioral disorder in which a dog obsessively or compulsively drinks an excessive amount of water. There is no physiological reason for them to drink so much water. But their obsession with water can cause a disruption in their electrolyte balance and a subsequent decrease in ADH production.

Diagnosing Canine Diabetes Insipidus

Diabetes insipidus is not the only disease that can cause your dog to have excess thirst and urination. Many of these diseases can mimic the effect that diabetes insipidus has on the kidneys. Testing for diabetes insipidus before eliminating other causes of excess thirst and urination may result in an incorrect diagnosis.

Your veterinarian will recommend bloodwork—including a complete blood count (CBC), chemistry panel, and basic thyroid level (total T4)—and a urinalysis with urine culture and sensitivity. The results of these tests may determine the cause of your dog’s excess thirst and urination or may indicate the next diagnostic steps.

Additional diagnostics may include tests of the adrenal glands (such as an ACTH stimulation test or low-dose dexamethasone suppression test), liver (bile acids test), or kidneys (urine protein-to-creatinine ratio). A full thyroid panel will be recommended if the total T4 is too low or too high. A hypercalcemia of malignancy profile will be recommended if the total calcium level in the blood is too high.

Your veterinarian may also recommend imaging of the thorax (chest) or abdomen. This may include radiographs (x-rays) or ultrasound of the abdomen or neck. The results of the aforementioned blood and urine tests will guide your veterinarian on what imaging, if any, would be appropriate for your dog.

Testing for diabetes insipidus and psychogenic polydipsia may commence once other causes of excess thirst and urination have been ruled out. There are currently two tests for diabetes insipidus—the modified water deprivation test and the desmopressin response trial.

The modified water deprivation test is not an easy test to perform. It is potentially dangerous and must be executed with great care and precision. Dogs must be hospitalized while undergoing the modified water deprivation test. They must be monitored closely to ensure that they do not become dehydrated or develop electrolyte abnormalities during the test.

An alternative test is the desmopressin response trial. Desmopressin is the medication that is used to treat CDI. Dogs that respond to desmopressin are diagnosed with CDI. Dogs that show no response to desmopressin are diagnosed with primary NDI. Dogs that only minimally respond to desmopressin are diagnosed with psychogenic polydipsia.

Your veterinarian will ask you to collect one urine sample a day from your dog on five consecutive days prior to starting the desmopressin response trial. The time of day the urine is collected should be different on each day. The urine specific gravity (USG) of each urine sample will be measured to determine your dog’s baseline of urine concentration.

Your veterinarian will also ask you to measure how much water your dog drinks each day for 2 – 3 days prior to starting the desmopressin response trial. See the sidebar on how to measure your dog’s daily water intake.

You will need to make sure that your dog is the only one drinking from his water bowl to obtain an accurate measurement of his daily water intake. This may require keeping your dog separate from other pets in the home on the days you are measuring his water intake.

Your veterinarian will need to obtain blood and urine samples from your dog prior to giving the first dose of desmopressin. Your dog’s USG, serum sodium level, and kidney values will be measured. A low sodium level or elevated kidney values may delay the start of the desmopressin response trial until it is safer for your dog to undergo the test.

Desmopressin may be given by injection, by mouth, or as an eye drop. It is given two to three times a day for five to seven days. You will need to measure your dog’s daily water intake during the desmopressin response trial. You will also need to collect a urine sample once a day for USG measurement during this period.

Dogs with CDI will decrease their daily water intake by 50% or more during the desmopressin response trial. Their USG will increase by 50% or more from their initial baseline during the test. Dogs with primary NDI will experience no change in their daily water intake or USG. Dogs with psychogenic polydipsia may experience a small decrease in daily water intake and a small increase in USG during the test.

Your veterinarian may recommend a CT scan or MRI of your dog’s brain if he is diagnosed with CDI. These diagnostics will be particularly pertinent if your dog is exhibiting any neurologic signs, such as seizures, vision loss, head tilt, ataxia (wobbly gait), or circling when walking. Advanced imaging of the brain will assist with identifying a brain tumor, inflammatory condition or congenital malformation.

Treating Diabetes Insipidus in Dogs

CDI is treated with twice daily desmopressin. Desmopressin is available as a tablet and as a nasal spray. The nasal spray is administered as a drop in the conjunctival sac. The conjunctival sac is the pink area on the inside of the lower eyelid.

There is no specific treatment for primary NDI. Administration of thiazide diuretics (such as chlorothiazide) may gradually decrease urine output and then thirst. Treatment of secondary NDI requires identifying and treating the underlying condition, such as Cushing’s disease.

Psychogenic polydipsia is a behavioral condition that requires identification of the underlying cause. Causes may be related to anxiety, hypersensitivity-hyperactivity syndrome, or a compulsive disorder. Treatment may include behavior modification, medication, and gradual, closely supervised restriction of water intake.

Most medications used to treat CDI, primary NDI, and psychogenic polydipsia are available as generic drugs with only low to moderate monthly cost.

Prognosis for Dogs with Diabetes Insipidus

Dogs with idiopathic CDI have a good prognosis for survival although they require lifelong treatment for their condition.

Dogs with CDI secondary to a brain tumor, trauma, congenital malformation, or cerebral inflammatory condition may have a fair to guarded prognosis. They often have other symptoms related to their underlying condition. These symptoms may include seizures, vision impairment, and gait abnormalities.

Dogs with primary NDI will have some degree of excess thirst and urination for the remainder of their lives. Since there is no specific treatment for primary NDI, therapy is targeted at decreasing the intensity of the symptoms.

Dogs with psychogenic polydipsia generally have a good prognosis provided that the underlying reason for their obsession with drinking excessive amounts of water can be identified and addressed.

Can Dogs Cry?

By
Debby McMullen, CDBC
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1
Dogs don't cry, but they do experience sadness and acute stress.
Dogs experience sadness, but they do not cry tears due to that emotion. Credit: Alan Mezzomo | iStock

Yes, dogs cry, but they do not cry like humans, with tears running down their face. They cannot produce tears to indicate sadness like humans do. Humans are the only species who do produce tears of sadness.

Dogs, however, can produce happy tears when reunited with their owners at times such as after a long day. Research shows that dogs produce an increased amount of tearing in such contexts, which is a result of the hormone oxytocin. But alas, no canine sadness tears.

Can Dogs Feel Sadness?

Dogs do express all emotions, including sadness. They just exhibit them with body language and vocalizations, so you need to decipher what you’re seeing.

Let’s take howling, for example. Dogs howl for various reasons, including sadness. Looking at the content of the howl is important. A firetruck just drove by and your dog howled? That one is easy. If your dog’s best friend just crossed to the Rainbow Bridge in their presence and they howled then, that is a whole different howl than caused by the firetruck. That is indeed a sadness howl.

Whining is another vocalization that dogs are fond of using. It can indicate many different things. I don’t know anyone whose dog has not whined about something or another. The whining can be low volume and seemingly not terribly trauma induced or it can be at such a volume that you will do anything to help your dog feel better.

I am torn as to whether whimpering is equivalent to whining or not. Again, whimpering can mean anything from “my ball is stuck under the couch” to “my toe really hurts.” You, as the dog parent, are expected to learn to decipher your dog’s various vocalizations so that you can better care for them.

My dog Keric whined heavily as puppy when he discovered that I had to leave to go to work at some point, despite having been crate-trained by his breeder. To say that it broke my heart is a vast understatement. I worked exceptionally hard to help him overcome that stress of being left behind and am happy to report that it did not take much.

Occasionally, when he is anxious over something, whether it be the heat this summer (we do not have central air, just window units) or the fly in the house (he is afraid of flies, all 130 lbs. of him), he will start whining when he knows that I am leaving. It makes me sad to leave, but I have done everything possible to help him feel comfortable when I am gone so I know that he will be fine, despite his crying.

The behavior that is crying dogs is such that again, you as the dog parent will need to be a bit of a detective to determine the cause of such. Medical-issue crying is something that you should get a veterinarian involved with to determine the cause.

Do be mindful that some dogs “cry” for attention because that behavior has been reinforced so you will have to be extra savvy to determine whether there really is a solid reason for said crying.

A note on actual tears: If your dog producing tears (dog eye discharge) regularly, especially if you’re battling tear dog tear stains, this is also a reason to see a veterinarian as your dog is not “crying” from sadness.

Valerian Root for Dogs

By
CJ Puotinen
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0
Valerian root for dogs is thought to be a natural stress and anxiety relief.
Although very few scientific studies have been done to confirm its efficacy, valerian root is often used to help relieve stress, anxiety, hyperactivity, and insomnia in dogs (and humans). Credit: dirkr | Getty Images

What Is Valerian Root?

Valerian (Valeriana officinalis) is a flowering perennial herb native to Europe and parts of Asia. The medicinal portion of the plant is its root, which contains naturally occurring compounds believed to have calming effects on the nervous system. Despite its powerful, pungent fragrance—often compared to old sweat socks or aged cheese—valerian is adored by cats and enjoyed by most dogs.

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Colitis in Dogs

By
Dr. Jennifer Bailey, DVM
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1
Colitis in dogs can have a number of causes which will need to be ruled out,
Colitis is common in dogs and can be caused by anything from eating something they shouldn’t or internal parasites to inflammatory bowel disease or cancer. Credit: NataKor | Getty Images

Colitis is an inflammatory condition of the colon (also known as the large intestine) that causes diarrhea. It is a common illness that will likely affect every dog at least once in their lifetime. As an emergency veterinarian, I see about half a dozen cases of colitis in dogs every twelve-hour shift!

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Dog Perfume

By
Debby McMullen, CDBC
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0
Dog perfume can be just what's needed to get rid of the lingering stentch of seaweed, or roadkill.
If your dog comes into the house after a day at the lake smelling like “seaweed” and there’s no time for a bath, a dog perfume might save the evening. Credit: Stuart Walmsley | Getty Images

If your dog needs a quick spritz to get him through from one bath to the next, you’ll be delighted to know there are a shocking number of dog perfumes and dog colognes. And with that comes an equally wide range of prices. I gathered the more affordable options out there to help your pup smell as bougie as it’s possible for a pup to smell and compared how well they did their job.

But first, why use a dog perfume? Many reasons. These products can:

  • Condition the coat
  • Reduce static electricity, which can be a benefit with heavily coated breeds in winter climates
  • Help with cleanliness and less odor between baths
  • Calm an anxious dog

Obviously, when using dog perfume or dog cologne, one must remember that a dog’s olfactory senses are far superior to ours. It matters greatly that you choose a scent that won’t overpower or be offensive to your dog. After all, they will be stuck with it and typically cannot remove it themselves. That said, if spraying your dog results in him giving himself a mud bath the first chance he gets, it’s a pretty safe bet that product was a poor choice.

Choosing the Right Perfume for Dogs

Let’s face it: No dog needs perfume. And, for that reason, I looked at affordability and safety for your dog’s best scent enhancement. In researching these products and discovering a wide range of pricing options available to help our pups smell their absolute best, I decided I am not spending $60 on a dog perfume or cologne. You may feel more generous with your spending dollars, but these days, we all need to shop smart—and that’s what I did.

Of course, safety matters with any product you use on your dog. I was relieved to see that the ingredients used in most dog perfumes and colognes are indeed safe for use on dogs. That said, if you’re choosing a dog cologne, read the ingredients label before you buy it. If you’re unsure of the safety of an ingredient, choose something else.

Deciding to use one depends on your individual dog. For example, some dogs are even more sensitive to certain smells than other dogs. If you have an anxious dog, a lavender scent may help but, then again, it may cause additional anxiety as something different from their usual routine. It’s important to spray the scent on something else, even a paper towel, and offer it to your dog to see what their response is. If benign, then you can consider using it.

Strong scents can also cause issues with brachycephalic breeds, especially in warmer weather, so please keep that in mind if that is the type of dog that you are considering using a dog perfume on. It’s important to actively observe your dog after applying dog perfume or cologne so that you can quickly notice any signs of distress or anxiety. If you do, immediately bathe the dog in gentle soap and contact your veterinarian.

Another thing to keep in mind if you want to use a dog cologne or perfume is that if your dog has a medical condition or even a potential medical condition that can possibly have an odor change from them as a symptom, you may be masking that symptom by using these products. So, please, keep the application light and away from where any important odor changes in your dog may take place.

Dog Cologne Challenge

Ideally, when you choose to use one of these products on your dog, spray it on your hands first and then transfer it to the parts of their coat that are farther away from their nose or where they may easily lick. Spraying it on your hands first will give you much more control over how much goes onto your dog. It will potentially save you from another bath if you see signs of distress in your dog.

What I looked for in a dog perfume or cologne was:

  • Affordability
  • Safe ingredients
  • Available scents
  • Detailed descriptions of what the product was designed to do

Here’s what I found in comparing affordable dog perfumes:

Best Overall Dog Perfume – 4 Paws

Pawfume is our pick for the best overall dog perfume.

Pawfume Premium Grooming and Finishing Spray

One size. 4 fluid ounces. $12.94

Three scents: Blue Ribbon, Show Dog, and Royal Lavendar.

I found this one beat all the others paws down. Not only did it spray easily and very lightly, but it also had a dry feel upon application. It also dried quickly and without any stickiness whatsoever. The smell of the one that I chose, Dog Show, was very light and not at all overpowering. The bio states that Dog Show is a mix of amber, white lily, and musk powder. My dogs did not shy away from this scent, which is an important consideration. The manufacturer also notes that this product provides a moisturizing finish that also detangles and reduces static electricity.

Most Economical Dog Cologne with a Light Scent – 3 Paws

Begley's dog perfume has a light scent and a budget friendly price.

Begley’s Pet Cologne and Deodorizer

Two sizes. 4 fluid ounces and 8 fluid ounces. $8.98 to $11.98.

One scent: Baby Powder.

I found this one to not only be economical but also the second-lightest scent. It’s unobtrusive but, unlike the Pawfume, this one needs a light touch on the spritzer to prevent an overload on either your hand or your dog. Thankfully, it did not dry sticky, and it dried fast. Additionally, the bottle seems the most streamlined off all the products that I tested, taking up little space. My dogs did not shy away from this scent either.

 

Best Smelling (to the human!) Dog Perfume – 3 Paws

Bohdi was the best smelling dog perfume of those we reviewed.

Bodhi Dog Premium Pet Cologne

Three sizes: 4 fluid ounces, 8 fluid ounces, and 17 fluid ounces. $13.99 to $23.99.

12 scents: Baby Powder, Blueberry, Calming Lavender, Fresh Apple, Holiday Cider, Lilac, Mango, Orange Sherbert, Pachouli, Pumpkin Spice, Sugar Cookie, and Winter Wonderland

I was a bit overwhelmed with the scent choices from this company but ultimately went with what sounded the yummiest to me: Sugar Cookie. It smelled amazing, but it was also overwhelming, even to me. My dogs notably backed up when presented with this one.  It’s one of my favorite scents, but I am not the one who would be wearing it. This product contains conditioning agents, and the bottle is attractive. It dries quickly and isn’t sticky feeling. However, the strong scent is what kept this one from being a 4 paws product.

Best Natural Light Perfume and Deodorizer – 2 ½ Paws

Earth rated is our pick for the best all-natural dog perfume.

Earth Rated Dog Deodorizer Conditioning Spray

One size. 8 fluid ounces. $11.99

One scent: White Tea And Basil

I really liked the smell of this one. My dogs did not shy away from it. It’s light and not overpowering. It would have received a better rating, but I felt too much spray was released with a touch on the spritzer. I also wasn’t a fan of the foam that shows up when released either, but it did not affect the drying process. I would recommend using a very light touch on this one when you spray or your dog will be covered in wetness surprisingly fast. It did not dry sticky. It does smell very light and pleasant though.

Most Inexpensive Dog Cologne

Arm and hammer offers the best budget friendly dog perfume.

Arm & Hammer for Pets Dog Cologne and Fragrance Spray – 2 Paws

One size. 6 fluid ounces. $6.99

Two scents: Rose & Sweet Apple and Vanilla Sandalwood.

I chose Vanilla Sandalwood. It has a pleasant light scent that is not at all overpowering. My dogs did not shy away from this one. It took a bit longer to dry than some others and was slightly sticky when dry, which I find problematic. This product was the least expensive of the group. If you need a dog perfume/cologne for various reasons, this one won’t set you back much financially. It also smells nice and isn’t overpowering. But I would not use this product on a coated dog due to the slight stickiness when dry that I noted.

In conclusion, if a dog perfume or cologne is something that you would like to experiment with, either to help your dog be less ripe smelling after a dirt dive or simply between baths, then know that there are dozens of choices, from very inexpensive to super bougie. Check the ingredients before purchasing, do a test spray on a paper towel so your dog can sniff it, then spritz away!

Best Dog Food for Diabetic Dogs

By
Dr. Mary Cope, PhD
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1
Dog food for diabetic dogs can make a difference in managing their blood sugar levels.
Managing your diabetic dog’s food may include periodically measuring his blood sugar, which is least stressful on the dog when done at home. Credit: Irina Meshcheryakova | Getty Images

Successful diabetes management relies on several key components working together: therapeutic insulin administration, consistent mealtimes, regular exercise, maintaining a healthy body weight, and close monitoring by both you and your veterinarian.

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Best Dog Training Muzzles

By
Kate Basedow, LVT
-
1
The best dog muzzles are comfortable for the dog while performing its duties.
A dog who is trained to accept a muzzle will be comfortable, so wearing it does not increase his stress. Credit: Todorchuk Kateryna | Getty Images

Dog muzzle training is something every dog should learn. Most of our dogs will never need to wear a muzzle, but it is a skill that every dog should have just in case, such as in an emergency. Even the sweetest dog can bite when stressed or in extreme pain.

By the same token, every dog owner should also own a muzzle that fits their dog(s). This is one of the easiest aspects of being a responsible dog owner and can also be one of the cheapest. You can get a quality muzzle for under $15 and keep it in your dog first aid kit.

Not sure where to start? Let’s discuss muzzle types, muzzle training, and some of my favorite muzzles.

Does My Dog Need a Muzzle?

Yes. Every dog should have a muzzle and be comfortable wearing it.

Situations where you might need to use a muzzle:

  • Dog in pain after an injury such as a dog fight or being hit by car
  • Taking your dog on public transit in some cities
  • Dog tends to eat things she shouldn’t, such as rocks, socks, or poop
  • Uncomfortable or painful veterinary and grooming procedures
  • Reactive dog who can behave unpredictably
  • Fearful dog
  • Dog who gets grabby when running with other dogs
  • New dog with a bite history
  • During behavioral modification training for a dog with a bite history
  • Introducing dogs with unpredictable behavior
  • Aggressive dog

Many of these situations are stressful. We want wearing a muzzle to be familiar to your dog so that putting a muzzle on is not an additional layer of stress in an already unpleasant situation.

There are two primary types of muzzles for dogs: basket muzzles and sleeve muzzles. Which one you need depends on how you will be using a muzzle with your dog.

Basket Muzzles for Dogs

Basket muzzles consist of a structured “cage” that fits around your dog’s snout and straps that secure it on her head. The basket part can be made of metal, plastic, or leather. I prefer plastic because it is easier to clean than leather and doesn’t hurt as much as metal if your dog whacks you with it. The basket should be big enough for your dog to pant and drink while wearing it and can be structured to allow your dog to eat food and treats.

Basket muzzles are most appropriate for prolonged wear. If you expect your dog to wear a muzzle for more than a few minutes at a time either during a training session or an outing, a basket muzzle is the way to go. You get peace of mind that your dog can’t accidentally hurt anyone, and your dog can still pant, eat, and drink. Basket muzzles with a tighter lattice structure are good to prevent your dog from eating things she shouldn’t either inside the home or outside.

Sleeve Muzzles for Dogs

Sleeve muzzles consist of a tube that fits snugly over your dog’s snout and a strap that buckles behind the ears to hold it in place. They can be made of fabric, mesh, or leather. They do not cover the end of your dog’s snout, so she may still be able to nip while wearing one. You may still be able to give small treats, but eating, drinking, and panting are all difficult while wearing a sleeve muzzle.

Sleeve muzzles are most appropriate for short-term or emergency use. Veterinary facilities and groomers use them frequently for dogs who are stressed by quick procedures such as blood draws, vaccinations, or nail trimming. Sleeve muzzles take up little space, so they are perfect to store in a first aid kit, glove compartment, or hiking backpack. Your dog might still be able to nip while wearing a well-fitted sleeve muzzle, but she won’t be able to do serious damage.

Fitting a Muzzle to Your Dog

Sleeve muzzles are easy to fit to most dogs. Measure the circumference of your dog’s muzzle near her eyes and choose a muzzle that will fit snugly but not squeezing. The head strap tightens to hold it in place. A basic sleeve muzzle will only be adjustable along the head strap, but some are also adjustable around the snout. Some dogs with extreme smoosh faces, such as a Bulldog, French Bulldog, or Boston Terrier, may not be able to wear a sleeve muzzle.

Basket muzzles can be a little trickier to fit because dogs have so many different head shapes. Certain brands are better suited for dogs with long, narrow heads like a Greyhound, blocky heads like a Bullmastiff, or a more average head like a Golden Retriever. Try muzzles on your dog in person if possible or look for one that has photos showing a dog similar in head shape to yours.

Basket muzzles should be large enough to allow the dog to open her mouth and pant but also rest comfortably on the snout. The length should be just a touch longer than the tip of the nose. Some basket muzzles just have straps that go under the chin and behind the ears, but others also come with a forehead strap that runs from the top of the basket between the dog’s eyes and then attaches to the head strap. This forehead strap can used to adjust how the basket sits on your dog’s snout and is extra security to prevent your dog from pawing the muzzle off.

Ideally, the basket should be wide enough that it isn’t squashing the cheeks and lips but narrow enough that your dog can’t wedge a paw inside.

Most basket muzzles come with a size chart that will list multiple measurements: length of the snout, circumference near the eyes, and possibly neck circumference as well. If your dog is between sizes based on measurements, it is usually best to size up.

Training Dog with Muzzle

Whether you are muzzle training a reactive dog or simply preparing in case of an emergency, the process of dog muzzle training is the same. Some dogs will take to a muzzle quickly, while others may progress more slowly. Take your time with each step, only proceeding when your dog is relaxed. It can help to think of muzzle training as a trick, like teaching your dog to wear a hat or carry a small bucket.

  1. Let your dog investigate the muzzle, sniffing it and eating treats while you snap and unsnap the buckle to let her get used to the sound.
  2. Hold the muzzle in one hand and reach through it with your other hand to offer your dog a treat. Repeat several times until your dog is readily taking the treat.
  3. Hold the muzzle in one hand and reach your other hand partway through so that your dog must place her nose partway into the muzzle to get the treat. Repeat several times until your dog is readily grabbing the treat from inside the muzzle.
  4. Hold the muzzle and treat so that your dog must place her snout completely inside the muzzle to get the treat. Repeat several times until she is readily placing her snout inside the muzzle to get the treat. At this point you can introduce a verbal cue, such as “muzzle,” before each rep.
  5. Ask your dog to put her snout in the muzzle, then buckle or snap the strap behind her ears. Immediately undo the buckle and take the muzzle off. You can reward with treats both while the muzzle is on and after you take it off. Repeat several times until she is no longer startled by the sound of the strap being fastened.
  6. Gradually increase the amount of time that the muzzle is left in place before you take it off again. Start with just a few seconds and build to several minutes.
  7. If your dog will wear a muzzle in public, start incorporating walks into your training sessions. Place the muzzle on for a few minutes, then take it off to give your dog a break.

Tip: When building duration, talk to your dog in a low, calm voice to praise her. You can also pet her with long, slow strokes to promote calm and relaxation.

Dog Training Muzzles We Love

I have tried several muzzles with my dogs, and these are my favorites.

Best Muzzle Overall: Full Grip Supply Basket Muzzle

A Belgian Tervuren wearing a hot pink muzzle.
Model is a 43-pound Belgian Tervuren wearing a size medium.

This is my favorite muzzle overall. It is extremely versatile and can be used for pretty much any situation in which my dog might need a muzzle and is secure while still having a sleek profile. And the color options appealed to my maximalism.

Pros:

  • Sturdy, firm plastic basket that doesn’t bend
  • Ample room to pant, eat treats, or drink
  • Can be fitted with a lick or stool guard
  • Padding on top of snout
  • Easy to clean
  • Sturdy straps
  • Variety of colors
  • Fits well on dogs with long and narrow or average head shapes
  • Made in USA
  • Affordable at about $22

Cons:

  • Limited size options – not appropriate for small dogs
  • Likely won’t fit dogs with short snouts or wide, bulky heads

Where to buy:

Best Sleeve Muzzle: CollarDirect Nylon Dog Muzzle

A Belgian Tervuren wearing a patterned sleeve muzzle.
Model is a 43-pound Belgian Tervuren wearing a size medium/large.

This is my favorite sleeve muzzle. It has the compact size and quick-fit that I love about sleeve muzzles and has adjustability features that I didn’t know I wanted until I pulled it out of the box.

Pros:

  • Sturdy nylon material
  • Adjustable snout circumference, so one muzzle could be used for multiple dogs
  • Secure Velcro and nylon strap around snout
  • Lockable plastic buckle on head strap
  • Variety of colors
  • Appropriate for almost any size dog or head shape
  • Compact storage
  • Affordable at about $15

Cons:

  • Does not allow dog to pant or drink
  • Only allows dog to take small treats
  • Dog can still nip
  • Likely won’t fit dogs with smoosh faces

Where to buy:

Best Muzzle to Prevent Licking/Chewing: JAFCO Clear Vinyl Muzzle

A Belgian Tervuren wearing a clear vinyl muzzle.
Model is a 43-pound Belgian Tervuren wearing a size 2 in flexible clear vinyl with no treat hole.

This muzzle was the priciest that I tried out, but it is worth it. It feels nice in hand and fits comfortably on the dog. It is not the most versatile muzzle but is perfect for a dog who eats things she shouldn’t. The clear vinyl is a nice touch to be able to see your dog’s expression and tongue.

Pros:

  • Thick but comfortable vinyl construction
  • Can also be ordered in hard plastic
  • Ample room to pant and allows some drinking
  • Prevents dog from eating poop/food/rocks/clothing
  • Prevents dog from licking wounds or surgery sites
  • Can be ordered with treat hole if you want to use it like a standard basket muzzle
  • Padding on top of snout
  • Easy to clean
  • Head strap feels lightweight but is quite strong
  • Many size options
  • Made in USA

Cons:

  • Difficult to give treats when training
  • Priced at $45 to $60, depending on size

Where to buy:

Best Budget Muzzle: PetSafe Dog Muzzle

A Welsh Corgi wearing a budget dog muzzle.
Model is a 27-pound Pembroke Welsh Corgi wearing a size medium.

For the average dog owner, this is the perfect muzzle to keep in your first-aid kit or next to your nail clippers. It’s made of quality materials with no frills and will get the job done without breaking the bank.

Pros:

  • Sturdy nylon and breathable mesh material
  • Adjustable snout circumference, so one muzzle could be used for multiple dogs
  • Secure Velcro around the snout
  • Appropriate for almost any size dog or head shape
  • Compact storage
  • Affordable at $10 to $13

Cons:

  • Does not allow dog to pant or drink
  • Only allows dog to take small treats
  • Dog can still nip
  • Likely won’t fit dogs with smoosh faces

Where to buy:

Best Comfort Basket Muzzle: Coastal Soft Basket Muzzle

Belgian Tervuren wearing a soft basket dog muzzle.
Model is a 43-pound Belgian Tervuren wearing a size 3.

This basket muzzle is soft and pliable while still preventing bites.

Pros:

  • Flexible silicone basket
  • Room to pant, eat, and drink
  • Neoprene padding on straps
  • Easier to fit to long-nosed dogs than many basket muzzles
  • Affordable at $20 to $34 depending on size

Cons:

  • A determined dog might still be able to nip
  • Cheek straps are not adjustable
  • Not a ton of room to pant depending on size and fit
  • Might not fit dogs with extreme head shapes

Where to buy:

Best “Big Head” Basket Muzzle: Baskerville Ultra Dog Muzzle

A 45-pound Belgian Tervuren wearing a large size basket muzzle.
Model is a 45-pound Belgian Tervuren wearing a size 6.

I have had my Baskerville Ultra for many years. This is a well-known brand that has been around for a while. It is not an ideal fit for my dogs with their long, pointy noses, but that doesn’t change the fact that it is a quality muzzle.

Pros:

  • Slightly flexible rubber plastic basket
  • Ample room to pant, eat, and drink
  • Basket can be softened in hot water and reshaped
  • Removable head strap
  • Fits well on dogs with average and boxier head shapes

Cons:

  • A determined dog might still be able to nip
  • No padding on top of snout
  • Likely won’t fit dogs with long narrow heads
  • May not fit dogs with smoosh faces
  • Moderately priced at $20 to $40 depending on size

Where to buy:

Specialty Dog Muzzles

If your dog spends a lot of time in her muzzle, you may be looking to spend more on a custom or specialty muzzle. The options are seemingly endless.

The Muzzle Movement is a UK-based company that makes gorgeous custom muzzles for any size dog starting at $65 USD.

Biothane basket muzzles are also becoming popular for their beauty and customizability. You can find many sellers online, with prices generally being in the $60 to $90 range.

For a true aggressive dog or extreme chewer, you may opt for a metal basket muzzle. Metal basket muzzles can take a lot of abuse and are the strongest option.

And if you have a dog with an extreme brachycephalic head shape such as a Bulldog, French Bulldog, or Boston Terrier, look for a muzzle specifically designed for their head shape. Traditional muzzles will not sit comfortably or securely on those cute little smooshed faces.

Why Is My Dog Always Hungry?

By
Dr. Debra M. Eldredge, DVM
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1
Why is your dog always hungry? They may just associate treats with affection, or their could be a medical issue.
For most dogs, begging is a bad habit. If your dog is truly hungry and losing weight, it’s time to make a vet appointment to find out why. Credit: Fotyma | Getty Images

If your dog is a chow hound and always begging for food, the odds are good that he is a Beagle or Lab or a mix thereof. While any individual dog can be a serious food hound, these breeds tend to stand out as food-crazy canines.

In general, dogs may seem to be perpetually hungry for many reasons. For one thing, they like to eat, just like we do. This is why monitoring your dog’s weight is important, especially if you’re not sure if he truly needs more food or not. When you’re at your veterinarian’s office, ask for an honest assessment of his weight. You could discuss a low-calorie dog food with your veterinarian, if they say he’s too heavy, or adjust his current food.

If he’s begging for food, but not thin, lethargic, or showing other signs of an illness, chances are he is simply asking for food because he likes to eat. This can especially be a problem if you share your food with him as that’s a surefire way to develop chronic begging, especially in those Labs and Beagles we mentioned earlier.

If your dog’s too thin, he’s probably legitimately hungry, especially if he’s a very active dog. You may simply need to feed him more, but a veterinary visit is probably in order first to rule out any problems.

Dog Is Begging, Hungry, and Losing Weight

If your dog has a good appetite but is begging and losing weight, the question is why.

Fast-growing adolescent dogs, particularly large- to giant-breed males, may seem to be perpetually hungry. It is important to be sure these puppies are getting an appropriately balanced diet for their age and size AAFCO label says, including growth of large-size dogs (70 pounds or more as an adult). You don’t want a chubby puppy, despite the cute photos. Discuss the right amount and type of food with your veterinarian and/or your breeder.

Look at any changes in your dog’s lifestyle. Have you added an extra walk so he might be burning off more calories? Has the weather changed and he is outdoors in the cold or snow more? Or, if it’s summer, is he swimming every day? Is your dog on a corticosteroid for seasonal allergies? These things can increase both appetite and drinking and are legitimate reasons for a healthy dog being hungry.

Health Issues Causing Hunger in Dogs

An obvious reason for an insatiable appetite is intestinal parasites. Any dog who constantly begs for food but is quite thin despite extra calories should have a fecal done, which means flotation, fresh smear, centrifugation, and, if deemed necessary, antigen testing for thoroughness. If parasites are found, this can be a relatively simple cure with medication, although some environmental cleanup may be required.

A decreasing appetite may be a sign of cardiac cachexia (muscle wasting in dogs with heart failure), nausea and loss of appetite with pancreatitis, and loss of appetite with liver or kidney problems. Some illnesses will increase appetite, however.

If your dog is constantly hungry but thin, you need to consider gastrointestinal problems such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The desire for food may be accompanied by diarrhea or vomiting but this might be the first sign. Diagnosis can be complicated, but specific bloodwork is helpful. Treatment may involve medications and/or diet changes.

While hyperthyroidism is more common in cats than dogs, some dogs can develop hyperthyroidism. A complete thyroid panel (bloodwork) is necessary for diagnosis. Along with increased activity, these dogs are hungry and eat more but burn off the extra calories. Treatment can be medical or surgical depending on the cause.

Of course, diabetes mellitus must also be on the list of concerns. Families tend to notice both increased drinking and increased appetite. Bloodwork is important along with a urinalysis to diagnose diabetes. Treatment requires replacing the insulin that your dog isn’t producing or isn’t utilizing. Getting the correct insulin dosage is generally a trial-and-error procedure with multiple blood samples taken along the way.

Genetic Mutation in Retrievers

In Labrador Retrievers, there is the pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) genetic mutation. This variant of the gene was associated with obesity and difficulty controlling weight in pet Labradors. These dogs are not only hungry all the time, but they are extremely efficient, so they don’t burn the calories they take in at a normal rate. The weight CAN be controlled, but it takes a dedicated owner who is very aware of their dog’s food intake and his exercise. About 25% of Labrador Retrievers and 66% of Flat Coat Retrievers have this genetic defect.

Do Dogs Smell Fear?

By
Debby McMullen, CDBC
-
0
Dogs can smell fear on their owner and other humans.
Dogs can smell fear through the cortisol and adrenaline a human emits when they’re upset and will react similarly. Credit: Marco Bottigelli | Getty Images

The short answer is yes, dogs can smell fear, but that age-old fallacy that they will try to dominate you if they smell fear is inaccurate. Dogs have an incredible sense of smell. All emotions smell differently to dogs. Unfortunately, we mere humans can’t smell those differences. But dogs most certainly can.

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Fluconazole for Dogs

By
Kate Basedow, LVT
-
0
Fluconazole for dogs is a drug used to treat certain fungal infections in dogs.
If you suspect your dog has an on his face, make a veterinary appointment. Fluconazole may be prescribed if the infection is a fungus.

Fluconazole is an antifungal medication used to treat fungal infections in dogs. Most of our dogs will never need to take it, but if your dog does contract a systemic fungal infection, fluconazole will become part of your routine for weeks to years.

When Fluconazole Is Given to Dogs

Fluconazole (brand name Diflucan) is a prescription medication that is not FDA-approved for use in dogs. It is used off-label by veterinarians on a regular basis for systemic fungal infections that affect a large portion of the dog’s body. It is especially useful because it can penetrate most body systems and organs, reaching the infection wherever it lies.

Some diseases that may be treated with fluconazole include:

Fungal infections can be difficult to treat. Depending on your dog’s condition, he may need to take fluconazole for weeks, months, or even years to clear the infection. Some fungal infections require lifelong treatment.

Fluconazole Side Effects in Dogs

Overall fluconazole is well tolerated by dogs. Side effects to watch for include:

  • Poor appetite
  • Vomiting
  • Diarrhea
  • Hair loss
  • Dry skin
  • Discharge from the eyes
  • Lethargy
  • Liver toxicity
  • Jaundice

How Fluconazole for Dogs Works

Fluconazole is a fungistatic, which means it stops fungi from growing and reproducing. It stops fungal cells from producing the ergosterol they need for their cell walls. This weakens the cells and causes them to weaken.

It is ultimately the dog’s immune system that kills the damaged fungal cells, which means that fluconazole may not be a good fit for a dog who is immuno-compromised.

Fluconazole is usually given twice a day by mouth. It comes as a tablet or liquid formulation. It takes a week or two to reach stable blood levels in your dog’s body, so results take time.

Fluconazole can be given with or without food. If your dog has been taking it on an empty stomach and experiences stomach upset, try giving it with a small meal.

Your veterinarian will recommend regular bloodwork while your dog is on fluconazole. This is to monitor his liver and kidney values to make sure these organs are functioning normally.

If your dog is experiencing side effects, stop giving the fluconazole and call your veterinarian. The fluconazole dosage for dogs is usually 10 to 20 milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg), so your veterinarian may be able to adjust your dog’s dose so that he still benefits with fewer side effects. As this is a prescription medication that can have serious health effects, you should never give your dog fluconazole that was intended for another family member.

Giving with Other Medications

Fluconazole can interact with many other medications. Tell your veterinarian all other medications and supplements that your dog is currently taking so he or she can recommend the safest plan for your dog. Fluconazole makes a variety of medications and compounds, including CBD, stronger, which increases the risk of side effects for your dog.

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